Gender

Pay Gap Adjusted vs Non-Adjusted(Wiki)

Adjusting for different causes

Comparing salary "within, rather than across" data sets helps to focus on a specific factor, by controlling for other factors. For example, to eliminate the role of horizontal and vertical segregation in the gender pay gap, salary can be compared by gender within a specific job function. To eliminate transnational differences in the job market, measurements can focus on a single geographic area instead.[29]

Reasons

Decomposition of the gender wage gap (2010)

The non-adjusted gender pay gap is not itself a measure of discrimination. Rather, it combines differences in the average pay of women and men to serve as a barometer of comparison. Differences in pay are caused by occupational segregation (with more men in higher paid industries and women in lower paid industries), vertical segregation (fewer women in senior, and hence better paying positions), ineffective equal pay legislation, women's overall paid working hours, and barriers to entry into the labor market (such as education level and single parenting rate).[30]

Some variables that help explain the non-adjusted gender pay gap include economic activity, working time, and job tenure.[30] Gender-specific factors, including gender differences in qualifications and discrimination, overall wage structure, and the differences in remuneration across industry sectors all influence the gender pay gap.[31]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_pay_gap#Adjusting_for_different_causes

 

Pay Gap Discrimination(Wiki)

Discrimination

A 2015 meta-analysis of studies of experimental simulations of employment found that "men were preferred for male-dominated jobs (i.e., gender-role congruity bias), whereas no strong preference for either gender was found for female-dominated or integrated jobs".[43] However, a meta-analysis of real-life correspondence experiments found that "men applying for strongly female-stereotyped jobs need to make between twice to three times as many applications as do women to receive a positive response for these jobs" and "women applying to male-dominated jobs face lower levels of discrimination in comparison to men applying to female-dominated jobs."[44] A 2018 systematic review of almost all correspondence experiments since 2005 found that most studies found that the evidence for gender discrimination "is very mixed", and that the amount of gender discrimination varies by occupation, though two studies found "a significant penalty for being pregnant or being a mother".[45] A 2018 audit study found that high-achieving men are called back more frequently by employers than equally high-achieving women (at a rate of nearly 2-to-1).[46]

In a 2016 interview, Harvard Economist Claudia Goldin argued that overt discrimination by employers was no longer a significant cause of the gender pay gap, and that the cause is instead more subtle cultural expectations which are a legacy of historical discrimination. According to Goldin, these expectations cause women, on average, to prioritize temporal flexibility, take different risks, and avoid situations of expected discrimination. She advocated educational reforms to address the remaining gender pay gap rather than mandates on business, arguing that the latter is simply too difficult to implement given the demands of the current business environment.[47]

A series of four studies from 2019 found that "even if these careers do not pay less, people assume that men will be less interested in any career that is majority female" and that this has "the potential to create a self-fulfilling prophecy in that people are also less interested in promoting pay raises in female-dominated caregiving careers ... yet if more men were to enter these occupations, the salaries in these fields might also rise".[48]

A 2021 study in Sweden on affirmative action found that "even though people’s attitudes tend to be quite negative when women are favored, they are even more negative when preferential treatment based on gender is offered to men".[49]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_pay_gap#Discrimination

 

DOL Gender Wage Gap Report(DOL)[Study]

FOREWORD
By the U.S. Department of Labor
During the past three decades, women have made notable gains in the workplace and in pay
equity, including increased labor force participation, substantial gains in educational attainment,
employment growth in higher paying occupations, and significant gains in real earnings.
In 1970, about 43 percent of women aged 16 and older were in the labor force; by 2007, over
59 percent were in labor force.


In 1970, only 17.9 percent of women aged 25 and older had gone to college; by 2000, almost
half had gone to college; and by 2006 one-third of the women in the labor force held a
college degree.


In 2007, women accounted for 51 percent of all workers in the high-paying management,
professional, and related occupations. They outnumbered men in such occupations as
financial managers, human resource managers, education administrators, medical and health
services managers, and accountants and auditors.
In 1970, the median usual weekly earnings for women working full-time was only 62.1
percent of those for men; by 2007, the raw wage gap had shrunk from 37.9 percent to just
21.5 percent.


However, despite these gains the raw wage gap continues to be used in misleading ways to
advance public policy agendas without fully explaining the reasons behind the gap. The purpose
of this report is to identify the reasons that explain the wage gap in order to more fully inform
policymakers and the public.
The following report prepared by CONSAD Research Corporation presents the results of a
detailed statistical analysis of the attributes that contribute to the wage gap and a synopsis of the
economic research that has been conducted on the issue. The major findings are:
There are observable differences in the attributes of men and women that account for most of the
wage gap. Statistical analysis that includes those variables has produced results that collectively
account for between 65.1 and 76.4 percent of a raw gender wage gap of 20.4 percent, and
thereby leave an adjusted gender wage gap that is between 4.8 and 7.1 percent. These variables
include:


A greater percentage of women than men tend to work part-time. Part-time work tends to
pay less than full-time work.
A greater percentage of women than men tend to leave the labor force for child birth, child
care and elder care. Some of the wage gap is explained by the percentage of women who
were not in the labor force during previous years, the age of women, and the number of
children in the home.


Women, especially working mothers, tend to value “family friendly” workplace policies
more than men. Some of the wage gap is explained by industry and occupation, particularly,
the percentage of women who work in the industry and occupation.
Research also suggests that differences not incorporated into the model due to data limitations
may account for part of the remaining gap. Specifically, CONSAD’s model and much of the
literature, including the Bureau of Labor Statistics Highlights of Women’s Earnings, focus on
wages rather than total compensation. Research indicates that women may value non-wage
benefits more than men do, and as a result prefer to take a greater portion of their compensation
in the form of health insurance and other fringe benefits.


In principle, more of the raw wage gap could be explained by including some additional
variables within a single comprehensive analysis that considers all of the factors simultaneously;
however, such an analysis is not feasible to conduct with available data bases. Factors, such as
work experience and job tenure, require data that describe the behavior of individual workers
over extended time periods. The longitudinal data bases that contain such information include
too few workers, however, to support adequate analysis of factors like occupation and industry.
Cross-sectional data bases that include enough workers to enable analysis of factors like
occupation and industry do not collect data on individual workers over long enough periods to
support adequate analysis of factors like work experience and job tenure.


Although additional research in this area is clearly needed, this study leads to the unambiguous
conclusion that the differences in the compensation of men and women are the result of a
multitude of factors and that the raw wage gap should not be used as the basis to justify
corrective action. Indeed, there may be nothing to correct. The differences in raw wages may be
almost entirely the result of the individual choices being made by both male and female workers

https://web.archive.org/web/20160327195224/http://www.hawaii.edu/religion/courses/Gender_Wage_Gap_Report.pdf

 

Female Dominated Roles(BLS)

What professions are women dominating? Traditionally, women worked as teachers, nurses, and secretaries. While that partially remains true, women are now taking over other professions previously dominated by men as well. Curious which ones? Here's a list of the top 10 female-dominated occupations, according to the most recent data from the BLS:

1. Preschool and kindergarten teachers

Female workforce: 97.6 percent

Median pay: $29,780 (preschool) and $57,980 (kindergarten)

Requirements: Associate degree (preschool) and bachelor's degree (kindergarten)

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 7 percent (preschool) and 3 percent (kindergarten)

Early childhood educators play a pivotal role in caring for and educating kids. They typically work a 10-month school year (though some positions are year-round) and usually work in a public or private school or childcare center.

Job growth for preschool teachers is projected to increase by seven percent by 2028, which is faster than the average growth among all jobs. The BLS predicts this is due to the increasingly important role early childhood education and development plays in our society.

2. Dental hygienists

Female workforce: 97.1 percent

Median pay: $74,820

Requirements: Associate degree

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 11 percent

Getting your teeth cleaned? You're likely making an appointment with a dental hygienist. A dental hygienist provides patients with preventative care, examining the mouth for signs of oral disease in the process.

Dental hygiene programs typically take three years to complete, and hygienists must be licensed in the state in which they work. The job outlook for dental hygiene is positive due to the country's increased aging population and the growing amount of research pointing to the importance of good oral care.

3. Speech language pathologists

Female workforce: 96 percent

Median pay: $77,510

Requirements: Master's degree

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 27 percent

The projected job growth for speech language pathologists is the highest on this list — it is expected to grow at least 27 percent from 2018 to 2028. That's because speech pathologists not only work with kids who have difficulty communicating, but they also work with adults who might have speech or language impairments as a result of a stroke, dementia, and other health conditions. 

Speech language pathologists typically need a master's degree and state license before they can start practicing.

4. Dental assistants

Female workforce: 96 percent

Median pay: $38,660

Requirements: Varies

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 11 percent

Besides pay, the biggest difference between dental assistants and dental hygienists is that dental assistants directly support dentists. They might handle office tasks, such as scheduling appointments; perform basic dental care, such as polishing a patient's teeth; or prep patients for various procedures.

The educational requirements to become a dental assistant are also less rigorous than that of a dental hygienist. Some states require assistants to graduate from an accredited program, while other states do not have any educational prerequisites at all. Instead, you would learn on the job.

5. Childcare workers

Female workforce: 94 percent

Median pay: $23,240

Requirements: High school diploma or equivalent

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 2 percent

Childcare workers work in a variety of settings, including daycare centers, a private household, and sometimes even their own homes. Duties include dressing, feeding, monitoring playtime, and overall caring for children. Typically, no formal education is required, but sometimes positions call for an early childhood education degree depending on the place of employment.

6. Secretaries and administrative assistants

Female workforce: 94 percent

Median pay: $38,880

Requirements: High school diploma or equivalent

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: -7 percent

Secretaries and administrative assistant jobs exist in nearly every industry, though you'll find the most positions in schools, hospitals, and government and legal offices. Typically, a high school diploma is required as well as several weeks of job training.

The general job growth for secretaries and administrative assistant positions isn't as promising as some of the other professions on this list. That could be due, in part, to the automation of these jobs. However, the BLS predicts there'll likely be an increased need for medical secretaries over the next 10 years as aging baby boomers start to require more medical attention.

7. Medical records & health information technicians

Female workforce: 93.6 percent

Median pay: $40,350

Requirements: Post-secondary certificate

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 11 percent

Medical records & health information technicians spend much of their time behind a computer. They organize, manage, and code patients' health records for insurance reimbursements, various databases and registries, and patient medical history records. Sometimes these jobs can be done remotely, and typically, a bachelor's degree isn't required for these positions.

Like other health-related professions on this list, the need for medical records & health information technicians is expected to grow as the country's baby-boomer population continues to age.

8. Dietitians and nutritionists 

Female workforce: 93.1 percent

Median pay: $60,370

Requirements: Bachelor's degree

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 11 percent

Dietitians and nutritionists aim to help people eat better and live a healthy lifestyle. They can work in a variety of settings, from hospitals and nursing homes to cafeterias and state governments. They can also help clients prevent and treat common diseases, including diabetes.

Dietitians and nutritionists typically need a bachelor's degree in food and nutrition (or a related degree), and many go on to secure more advanced degrees as well.

9. Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists 

Female workforce: 92.1 percent

Median pay: $24,830

Requirements: Post-secondary certificate

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 8 percent

Women make up a large majority of hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists. Typically, these jobs are available in a barbershop or salon, but there's also an opportunity to offer these services in clients' homes. You can work for a larger company, or you can start your own business; there's a lot of flexibility in this field.

All states require these professionals to be licensed. This means you would need a degree from a state-approved barber or cosmetology program.

10. Medical assistants

Female workforce: 90.6 percent

Median pay: $33,610

Requirements: Post-secondary certificate

Job growth outlook from 2018 to 2028: 23 percent

This is the second-fastest-growing profession on the list, behind speech language pathology, also due to the aging baby-boomer population's need for increased medical services.

The difference between a medical assistant and a medical records & health information tech is that medical assistants typically work in a hospital, physician's office, or other healthcare facilities (versus in an office or from home, behind a computer). These positions typically do not require a formal degree and call for less specialized knowledge about coding and medical software programs. A medical assistant also likely works directly with patients, taking vital signs and giving immunizations. They may also complete paperwork and carry out standard office procedures.

In conclusion

Women continue to level out the workforce playing field and dominate specific professions compared to our male counterparts. It's exciting to imagine what the next decade will bring for women and to consider what women-dominated professions will make this list in 2030 and how the gender pay gap will continue to shrink.

https://www.topresume.com/career-advice/top-10-professions-dominated-by-women